Christopher D. E. Willoughby (African American and African Diaspora Studies;Interdisciplinary, Gender & Ethnic Studies) published an essay "The Scientific Construction of Race in Early America" as a chapter of the Oxford Handbook of American Medical History. A part of this 34 chapter history of US medicine, Willoughby examines the rise of the scientific racism in American medicine from colonization through the Civil War, and how racial thinking shaped early American healthcare.